Stefan Frutiger’s [State of the Water] Portfolio

Water Infrastructure / Colorado River Aqueduct

The Colorado River Aqueduct is a remarkable 242-mile water conveyance system that delivers millions of gallons of water daily from the Colorado River to Southern California. Built in the 1930s during the Great Depression, the system features five major pumping plants: Whitsett (formerly Intake), Gene, Iron Mountain, Eagle Mountain, and Hinds. Each plant plays a crucial role in lifting water over various elevations, with Whitsett being the first plant drawing water from Lake Havasu. The plants were meticulously designed with nine pumps each, a configuration determined after two years of testing at Cal Tech laboratories. The original equipment, much of which dates back nearly 100 years, has been carefully maintained and upgraded over time, including the replacement of bronze impellers with stainless steel in the 1980s and 1990s.

Each pumping plant has unique characteristics and challenges. Whitsett lifts water 291 feet from Lake Havasu, Gene Pumping Plant raises it another 303 feet, Iron Mountain provides a relatively modest 144-foot lift, Eagle Mountain features a 438-foot lift, and Hinds Pumping Plant performs the highest lift at 441 feet. The water then flows by gravity to Lake Mathews, the terminal reservoir in Riverside County. The system includes several reservoirs along the way, such as Gene Wash, Copper Basin, and regulatory reservoirs at some pumping plants. The entire aqueduct, which includes open canals, tunnels, and siphons, has become essential to Southern California's water security, providing approximately 25% of Southern California's water supply.

The Colorado River Aqueduct is one of the largest and most important water conveyance systems in the United States, stretching 242 miles from Lake Havasu on the Colorado River to Southern California. Built between 1933 and 1941 by the Metropolitan Water District (MWD) of Southern California, the aqueduct was an engineering marvel of its time, using a complex system of pumping stations, canals, tunnels, and reservoirs to lift water over 1,600 feet and transport it across the Mojave Desert and through the San Jacinto Mountains.

This vital infrastructure supplies water to approximately 19 million people across Southern California, providing roughly 1 billion gallons of water daily to Los Angeles, San Diego, and other metropolitan areas. The aqueduct played a crucial role in enabling the massive population growth and economic development of Southern California throughout the 20th century, though in recent decades it has faced increasing challenges due to drought conditions in the Colorado River Basin, climate change, and competing water demands from other states that rely on the Colorado River.

The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) reported that in 2017, the total water use in Los Angeles was lower than it was in 1970, despite over one million more Angelenos. Per capita water use continuously dropped from 173 gallons per person per day in 1990 to 104 in 2017. Significant gains in water use efficiency from plumbing codes & landscape ordinances and LADWP’s Rebate Programs have helped reduce today’s per capita water use 40% lower than 1970 levels. Since 2010 the conservation program has saved roughly 25,000 acre-feet of water per year. For example 48 million square feet of turf was replaced with California-friendly landscaping.

Water Infrastructure / All-American Canal

The 82-mile All-American Canal, located in the southeastern corner of California, conveys water from the Colorado River to California’s Imperial Valley. The 123-mile Coachella Canal is a branch of the All-American Canal that delivers water to California’s Coachella Valley.

The Imperial Irrigation District (IID) conserved water transfer agreement provides 200,000 acre-feet of water a year for the San Diego region through water conservation measures in Imperial Valley. It is the largest agriculture to urban water transfer in the nation.

The All-American and Coachella Canal lining projects are conserving 77,700 acre-feet of water each year significantly reducing seepage through the earthen canals. Under the canal lining projects, approximately 23 miles of parallel, concrete-lined canal were constructed next to the original All-American Canal, and 35 miles of parallel, concrete-lined canal were constructed next to the original Coachella Canal.

Additionally, 16,000 acre-feet of conserved water per year is sent to several bands of Mission Indians in northern San Diego County – known as the San Luis Rey Indian settlement parties – settling a water rights dispute and decades of litigation with the federal government.

Las Vegas, NV

The current condition in Lake Mead resulted in a Tier 1 water shortage for Lower Basin operations, reducing Nevada's consumptive Colorado River water use annually by 21,000 acre feet. The Tier 1 shortage will remain in eﬀect through 2025. However, Nevada is not currently using its full Colorado River allocation. By the end of 2023, Nevada's consumptive Colorado River Water use was 187,000 acre-feet. This amount is below any Colorado River water supply reduction under existing rules.

Conservation efforts have helped the community reduce its per capita water use by 58 percent between 2002 and 2023, even as the population increased by more than 786,000 residents during that time. The consumptive use of Colorado River water was reduced by approximately 138,000 acre-feet per year.

The Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) has banked approximately 2.2 million acre-feet of water through 2023. This amount is twelve times Nevada’s 2023 consumptive Colorado River water use.

The SNWA completed construction of the Low Lake Level Pumping Station at Lake Mead in 2020. The pumping station works with SNWA’s Lake Mead Intake No. 3 to preserve Southern Nevada’s access to Colorado River water supplies to a Lake Mead elevation of 875 feet. This elevation is approximately 20 feet below the minimum elevation that Hoover Dam can release water downstream.

Uranium Mining Legacy (Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah)

DJI_0832.jpg / San Juan River / Mexican Hat Disposal Cell / As we explore another tributary of the Colorado River, the San Juan River we stop at Mexican Hat in Utah.

The Mexican Hat disposal cell originated from uranium mining operations in the 1950 — DJI_0832.jpg / San Juan River / Mexican Hat Disposal Cell / As we explore another tributary of the Colorado River, the San Juan River we stop at Mexican Hat in Utah. The Mexican Hat disposal cell originated from uranium mining operations in the 1950s-1960s. The site, located on Navajo Nation land, processed uranium ore for the U.S. atomic weapons program. Processing operations ended in 1965, leaving behind massive piles of radioactive mill tailings. Under the Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act of 1978, the Department of Energy conducted remediation from 1987 to 1995. The cleanup consolidated 2.8 million cubic yards of radioactively contaminated materials from both Mexican Hat and nearby Monument Valley sites into the current disposal cell. The site's history highlights environmental justice concerns, as uranium mining disproportionately impacted Navajo communities through occupational exposure and environmental contamination. The Mexican Hat disposal cell in Utah, containing approximately 4.4 million tons of uranium mill tailings, presents several environmental concerns: 1) Groundwater contamination from radionuclides and heavy metals seeping through the disposal cell. 2) The site sits above the Honaker Trail Formation aquifer. 3) Natural precipitation and flooding could potentially accelerate contaminant migration. 4) Erosion of cover materials could compromise containment. Monitoring data has shown site-related groundwater contamination. However, because of the isolation of the upper aquifer, the Department of Energy is not required to perform groundwater monitoring...

DJI_0857.jpg / Tuba City Disposal Cell, AZ / The disposal cell is located on Navajo Nation land, near the Hopi reservation, approximately five miles east of Tuba City. Uranium and vanadium ore processing occurred there between 1956 and 1966. The mill produced around 800,000 tons of uranium mill tailings. The disposal cell was completed in 1990. The DOE moved approximately 1.4 million cubic yards of contaminated materials into a engineered disposal cell covering about 50 acres. There have been ongoing concerns about contamination of the underlying aquifer, which is a source of drinking water for local communities. Monitoring has shown elevated levels of uranium, nitrate, and sulfate in the groundwater. A few alarming numbers (estimates) from the 2023 Groundwater Remedy Performance Update: During milling a maximum of 100 tons of uranium was infiltrated into the ground. The current uranium plume in the aquifer contains 550 million gallons of contaminated water and increases by an average of 40 million gallons per year. The average uranium concentration is 190 μg/L, 36% up from 140 μg/L in 2008, about six times the EPA's limit for drinking water (30 μg/L). The site's location on Navajo Nation land has raised environmental justice concerns about the disproportionate impact of uranium mining and processing on Indigenous communities.

DJI_0973.jpg / Pinyon Plain Uranium Mine /
The Pinyon Plain Mine, formerly known as the Canyon Mine, is a controversial uranium mining site located in northern Arizona, approximately 6 miles southeast of the Grand Canyon's South Rim. The mine sits o — DJI_0973.jpg / Pinyon Plain Uranium Mine / The Pinyon Plain Mine, formerly known as the Canyon Mine, is a controversial uranium mining site located in northern Arizona, approximately 6 miles southeast of the Grand Canyon's South Rim. The mine sits on U.S. Forest Service land within the Kaibab National Forest and is owned by Energy Fuels Resources, a Canadian company. Despite its proximity to the Grand Canyon National Park, the mine was initially permitted in 1986, before the 2012 moratorium on new uranium mining claims around the Grand Canyon. The mine has faced significant opposition from environmental groups and Native American tribes, particularly the Havasupai Tribe, whose reservation and sacred lands lie nearby. A primary concern is the potential contamination of groundwater and springs that are vital to both the ecosystem and tribal communities. The Havasupai people, whose name means "'the people of the blue and green sky and water", are particularly concerned about protecting their water sources in Havasu Canyon, which they rely on for drinking water and agricultural purposes. One of the most challenging aspects of the Pinyon Plain Mine has been its management of groundwater. The mine shaft has encountered significant amounts of groundwater during drilling, requiring constant pumping and water management. Energy Fuels has had to implement various measures to handle and treat this water, which contains elevated levels of uranium and arsenic. The company maintains that their operations are safe and comply with all regulatory requirements, while critics argue that the long-term risks to the region's water resources and environmental health outweigh any potential benefits from uranium extraction.

DJI_0048.jpg / Little Colorado River / Numerous abandoned uranium mines are located in close proximity to the Little Colorado River. There is clear scientific evidence that the Little Colorado River seasonally carries high loads or uranium – contamination that is carried directly into the Colorado River. While uranium occurs naturally in that area, we will look at human made situations upstream from Cameron, Arizona. Next is an “upgrader” which was meant to increase the concentration of uranium in the ore from local mines. Elevated gamma radiation in soil was identified at the site during a site screen in 2011. Waste rock across the site from historical mining activities is the primary source of radiological and metals contamination. Excavation of mining related ore and waste rock from near-surface uranium deposits have dispersed metals and radionuclides into the local environment. In November 2024, the EPA published a proposal to remove remnants of the upgrader, concrete pads and foundations, unreclaimed waste piles, a former drainage pond and two abandoned mines. The removal of an estimated 14,711 cubic yards of contaminated soil will cost $4M. The cleanup includes excavating waste rock piles, residual waste rock, and contaminated soils; and consolidating and capping the waste in a regional repository located approximately one mile from the upgrader. According to the EPA this location would provide for increased distance from drainages and floodplains. The cap and exposed bedrock areas will require long-term maintenance.

DJI_0594.jpg / Quivira Uranium Mines / Near Church Rock, New Mexico, three former uranium mining sites hold a troubling legacy: one million cubic yards of radioactive waste. The Quivira Mines (aka Church Rock No.1 mines) stand as silent reminders of America's Cold War nuclear program and its impact on Navajo land. After years of partial cleanups and temporary fixes, the EPA has proposed a comprehensive solution in March 2024. Their recommended plan would transport all the waste to a new facility near Thoreau, New Mexico. The operation would be massive: 76,710 truckloads traveling 44 miles over 4.5 years, costing $182.5 million. While expensive and complex, this solution would permanently remove the contamination from Navajo land. Objectives are to prevent offsite migration of contaminants from mining activities that pose an unacceptable risk to human or ecologic health by soil, surface water, groundwater, or air. Since 2021, the EPA has held meetings with affected communities, conducted facility tours, and engaged with various Navajo chapters. This reflects a recognition that environmental decisions must include the voices of those most impacted. Communities face a significant choice: The proposed solution would eliminate the long-term health and environmental risks, but at the cost of years of truck traffic and disruption. It's a decision that weighs immediate impact against future benefit. The situation highlights broader issues of environmental justice, as this Indigenous community bears the burden from uranium mining. Despite the mines being closed for decades, the community continues to deal with the environmental and health impacts while facing challenges in getting their concerns fully addressed by government agencies.

DJI_0622.jpg / Puerco River / Church Rock: America’s Forgotten Nuclear Disaster / The Church Rock uranium mill spill occurred on July 16, 1979, in New Mexico when a tailings disposal pond breached its dam, releasing approximately 1,100 tons of uranium waste and 94 million gallons of radioactively contaminated water into the Puerco River. The disaster released more radioactive material than the Three Mile Island accident, which occurred just months earlier. The contaminated water contained high levels of uranium, thorium, radium, and heavy metals, traveling downstream through Native American lands and affecting local Navajo communities who relied on the river for livestock and irrigation. Despite the magnitude of this environmental disaster, the Church Rock spill received relatively little national media attention or federal response compared to other environmental accidents of similar scale. The local Navajo population, who were most directly impacted, faced significant challenges in the aftermath, including contaminated drinking water, affected livestock, and long-term health concerns. The cleanup efforts were inadequate, and many areas remained contaminated for years afterward, with some contamination persisting to this day. This incident highlighted the environmental justice issues surrounding uranium mining in the American Southwest, where many mining operations were located on or near Native American lands. The Church Rock spill became a symbol of the disproportionate environmental and health burdens borne by Indigenous communities during the Cold War-era uranium mining boom. It also led to increased scrutiny of uranium mining practices and waste disposal methods, though critics argue that reforms and cleanup efforts remained insufficient.

DJI_0640.jpg / San Juan River / Shiprock Disposal Cell / The Shiprock disposal cell is located on Navajo Nation land in northwestern New Mexico, near the town of Shiprock. It contains radioactive waste and contaminated materials from a former uranium mill that operated from 1954 to 1968. The mill processed uranium ore to support the U.S. atomic weapons program during the Cold War. The mill was operated by Kerr-McGee Nuclear Industries. After the mill closed, approximately 1.5 million cubic yards of radioactive mill tailings and contaminated materials remained on site. In 1983-1986, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) carried out remediation under the Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act (UMTRCA). The waste was consolidated into an engineered disposal cell on top of the former mill site. Environmental concerns: 1. Groundwater contamination: The site has resulted in contamination of both shallow and deep groundwater aquifers with uranium, nitrate, sulfate, and other hazardous substances. This affects drinking water sources and agricultural use. 2. Surface water impacts: Seepage from the disposal cell affects the San Juan River and nearby arroyos. 3. Soil contamination: Despite remediation efforts, some areas around the former mill site retain elevated levels of radioactive materials. 4. Erosion risks: The disposal cell's location on an elevated terrace raises concerns about long-term stability.

DJI_0671.jpg / Moab, UT / In the heart of Utah's red rock country, along the banks of the Colorado River, sits a legacy of America's atomic age - the Moab UMTRA site. From 1956 to 1984, this location served as a uranium ore processing facility, first operated by the Uranium Reduction Company and later by Atlas Minerals Corporation. During its operational years, the facility processed over 16 million tons of uranium ore, leaving behind a massive 130-acre pile of uranium mill tailings that would become one of the region's most significant environmental challenges. The site's proximity to the Colorado River, a crucial water source for millions of downstream users, sparked intense debate about its environmental impact and cleanup strategy. When Atlas declared bankruptcy in 1998, the U.S. Department of Energy took ownership in 2001 and began planning an ambitious remediation project. After careful consideration and substantial public input, the DOE decided against capping the tailings in place, instead opting to relocate them to a specially constructed disposal cell near Crescent Junction, about 30 miles north of Moab. This massive undertaking, beginning in 2009 and estimated to cost over $1 billion, involves moving millions of tons of contaminated material to a location chosen for its geological stability and distance from water sources. While the project continues to face challenges, including concerns about dust control and transportation safety, it represents one of the most significant environmental cleanup efforts in the American Southwest, aimed at protecting both public health and the Colorado River ecosystem for future generations. As of October 2024, the Moab UMTRA Project has removed and shipped a cumulative 15 million tons of uranium mill tailings from the Moab site to a nearby disposal facility. About 1 million tons of the contaminated soil and debris remain to be disposed.

DJI_0575.jpg / Puerco River / Church Rock Uranium Mines / What's less known than the Church Rock spill is that for more than two decades highly contaminated, radioactive water from mine dewatering was discharged directly into a small tributary of the Puerco River known as Pipeline Arroyo. I highly recommend reading the 1994 report "Radioactivity in the Environment - A Case Study of the Puerco and Little Colorado River Basins, Arizona and New Mexico" by Laurie Wirt, published by the USGS (https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/wri944192). The report summarizes the results of a study from 1988-91 of the occurrence and transport of selected radionuclides and other chemical constituents in the Puerco and Little Colorado River basins, Arizona and New Mexico. Excerpts from the report: Concentrations of uranium in the mine water averaged about 1,000 μg/L, about 50 times the limit for drinking water of 20 μg/L proposed by the EPA. In the absence of floods, the combined mine and sewage water from Gallup formed a continuously flowing stream as far as Chambers, Arizona a total length of about 70 miles. Over a 22-year period, mine dewatering released an estimated total of 510 tons of uranium and 260 trillion picocuries of gross-alpha radioactivity to the Puerco River. Compared to the 46 trillion picocuries of gross-alpha activity released by the 1979 spill. Despite the large size of the spill, far more radioactive elements were released gradually by day-to-day pumping from the underground mines. During the peak of mining from 1977 to 1982, 2.34 billion gallons (or 75 gallons per second) of mine water was released annually. Most of the radioactivity in the mine water was from readily dissolved uranium, whereas radioactivity from the spill was caused primarily by radium and thorium, which attach to sediment.

Native Tribes and Agriculture (California and Arizona)

«So-called forage crops like alfalfa and Bermuda grass, which are used to feed livestock, mainly cattle, require mind-altering amounts of water to cultivate.»

The Colorado River Basin is facing a severe water crisis, largely driven by agricultural practices unsuited to the arid climate. That includes a technique called “flood irrigation,” which is exactly what it sounds like: watering hundreds of alfalfa acres at a time by briefly flooding the field. About 79% of the river's water goes to crop irrigation, with 70% of that specifically used for livestock feed crops like alfalfa. In 2022 alone, alfalfa farming consumed 6.75 million acre feet of water across the seven basin states - enough to meet the indoor household water needs of 40 million people who rely on the Colorado River system for municipal water for three and a half years.

The agricultural crisis is exacerbated by multiple factors: inefficient irrigation practices like flood irrigation and central pivot sprinklers, particularly in arid regions like California's Imperial Valley, which receives only three inches of rain annually but requires 46 inches for alfalfa growth, climate change impacts that have reduced river flow by 20% since 2000, and the continued growth of alfalfa production, including exports. 40% of the alfalfa grown in California in 2020 was shrink-wrapped, containerized, and shipped internationally. Proposed solutions include restricting alfalfa exports, and transitioning to geographically appropriate crops.

The Fort Yuma-Quechan Reservation is located near Yuma, Arizona and includes 45,000 acres along the Colorado River. The reservation encompasses a portion of the ancestral home of the Quechan People. Their aboriginal villages were located in or near the Colorado River’s floodplain, which allowed annual floods to deposit rich soil from upriver. This ended with development of dams and diversions upstream from the Quechan homeland, which essentially cut off the historical flows to the area.

The Fort Mojave Indian Reservation is located along the Colorado River in the vicinity of Needles, California. Agriculture provides the basis for the Fort Mojave economy and 15,000 acres of land are under cultivation. Crops grown include staples like cotton, alfalfa and wheat. Living along the banks of the Colorado River, the Mojave Indians are the Pipa Aha Macav – The People by the River. Mojave culture traces the earthly origins of its people to Spirit Mountain, the highest peak in the Newberry Mountains, located northwest of the present reservation inside the Lake Mead National Recreation Area.

The Colorado River Indian Reservation is located in between Blythe and Parker. The river serves as the focal point and lifeblood of the area. The fertile river bottom lands and available water allow the production of agricultural and produce such as cotton, alfalfa, wheat, feed grains, lettuce and melons. Approximately 84,500 acres are now under cultivation. The Colorado River Indian Tribes have senior water rights to 717,000 acre feet of the Colorado River, which is almost one-third of the allotment for the state of Arizona.